Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.-Smart Tech. > Volume 3(1); 2025 > Article
Seo and Han: A Review on Deployable Structures in Space Industry

Abstract

Deployable structures are essential for satellite systems, space habitats, and space exploration. These structures remain compact during launch and extend in space, effectively addressing the constraints of space transportation. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent research developments in this field. It investigates fundamental design concepts that favor lightweight, high-strength, and high-efficiency structures, which are well-suited for space environments. The research explores innovative structures, such as deformable structures and rigid links, to enhance efficiency and durability in harsh space environments. Recent technical advances, including innovative deployment techniques and autonomous systems, are examined to emphasize their significance in increasing the overall efficiency of space operations. This review also highlights key challenges, such as ensuring dependability in severe conditions, while recommending high-potential research areas. Overall, this comprehensive review offers valuable insights for academics, engineers, and stakeholders aiming to enhance the performance and sustainability of space missions.

1 Introduction

Deployable structures (Fig. 1) are specialized mechanical systems designed to change in predictable and regulated ways, moving along paths to enable quick transitions between different configurations [14].
Deployable structures have the potential to modify their shape and adapt in response to changing environmental or climatic conditions [5,6]. These structures use kinematic mechanisms to transition from a compact configuration to an open form, fulfilling their architectural function. Deployment refers to the process in which these structures transition from a compact form to an unfolded, open configuration, resulting in a stable structure capable of bearing loads. These structures can have various shapes, characteristics, and behaviors depending on the environment and the specific application requirements [711].
Geometric principles, such as the truss constructions and the chiral honeycomb structures, are often used in the design of deployable structures, whereby suitable shapes satisfy geometric compatibility [12,13].
Deployable structures are generally composed of thin membranes and rods, and they often require mechanical properties that allow them to be foldable while maintaining rigidity [14]. Furthermore, by applying material optimization and modular design, this capacity offers significant advantages in terms of transportability, construction efficiency, and overall sustainability.
These kinds of structures are in high demand in many engineering domains, such as aerospace, architecture, building, and the military and defense industries. As the demand for creative engineering solutions rises, deployable structures are attractive options for development in both the theoretical and practical spheres due to their effectiveness, scalability, and ability to function continuously [13]. Deployable structures are gaining popularity because they include intermediate parts made from two key pantograph elements, increasing design flexibility without sacrificing structural mobility [12]. These structures are especially well-suited for usage in extraterrestrial environments as frames for deployable antennas or shelters. Consider the movement of massive structures into space made possible by the deployable antenna, which can be compactly stored on Earth, carried to space, and then extended into a vast three-dimensional design.
Deployable structures require characteristics such as lightweight, structural strength and rigidity, and multifunctionality [14]. Designing these structures to allow folding during shape change while maintaining stiffness before and after deployment is very important.
Truss constructions are usually utilized to produce great stiffness, which is required for large, accurate space antennas [12]. They maximize structural stiffness by exposing each element only to compressive and tensile forces, effectively distributing loads through their triangular geometric configuration. Furthermore, minimal deformation is caused by the strong connections and material continuity, which increases the structure’s overall stability [15,16]. The truss-based deployable design can maintain geometric stability while allowing the structure to contract or expand. It retains structural integrity throughout the deployment process, limiting the possibility of structural instability during the expansion and contraction stages.
The chiral honeycomb structure can also function as a deployable configuration [13]. Made from elastic materials, it is initially inflated and can be compressed and held in place by external forces. When the locking mechanism is released, the elastic energy that has been stored is released, enabling the structure to return to its original form.
Furthermore, the development of tape spring hinge technology has increased the range of applications for deployable structures [17]. The potential uses of these structures have been further expanded by technical developments in ultra-thin composite materials [18].
Using innovative materials, such as composites, in the structures can also improve performance. For example, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composite materials, Deleo has designed, built, and tested a foldable but stiff structure that is based on the Tachi-Miura-Polyhedron (TMP) architecture and inspired by origami design concepts [14]. Potential uses for composite origami include impact-mitigating structures, actively controlled aerodynamic surfaces, solar arrays and antennas, and deployable shelters for space exploration and disaster relief. Furthermore, the development of the rigid wall accordion structures is closely tied to advances in material science, especially in composite material that enable the construction of lightweight structures [19].
As another approach, smart deployable structures are engineered to significantly increase in area or volume in reaction to basic control signals or energy inputs [13]. The integration of mechanical components with smart materials demonstrates remarkable efficiency and versatility in achieving this capability.
This research examines technical advancements in deployable structures, particularly focusing on their applications in the space sector. Deployable structures are classified into deformable structures and rigid links. Deformable structures, utilizing strut-cable systems and tensioned membranes, offer lightweight and flexible solutions. Rigid links, divided into pantographic, bars, folded plates, and curved surface, support complex mechanical movements. These structures are used in various fields, such as International Space Station (ISS) modules, satellite antennas, and solar panels.

2 Classification and Characteristics of the Deployable Structures

2.1 Overview

According to Hanaor (Fig. 2), deployable structures can be roughly divided into two categories: deformable structures and rigid links [26]. Deformable structures are systems that change their shape or adopt new configurations under specific conditions to perform their intended functions. This is especially important in the aerospace and aviation sectors, where efficiency and flexibility are critical. Tensioned membranes and strut-cable systems make up the majority of these structures.
Rigid links, on the other hand, consist of components that are non-flexible and inflexible; these components are connected in various ways to allow complex mechanical movements. These structures, which function as deployable systems, are further classified into four subcategories: pantographic (scissors), bars, folded plates, and curved surfaces. Investigating the fundamental concepts of deformable structures and stiff linkages, as well as some practical applications in industry, is the aim of this study.

2.2 Deformable Structures

Deformable structures are structural systems that, in order to perform their intended tasks, change their shape or configuration under certain circumstances. Such structures are especially important in industries where efficiency and flexibility are critical, such as aerospace and aviation. Tensioned membranes and strut-cable systems are the two main groups of deformable structures (Table 1).

2.2.1 Strut-cable Systems

The capacity of strut-cable systems, also called tensegrity structures, to create stable configurations through the interaction of tension and compression components sets them apart [20,21]. These devices are primarily used as deployable structures in space-related applications and have a lattice-like construction. Strut-cable systems are notable for their excellent deployment capabilities, lightweight design, and great efficiency.
Sokolowski has focused on the development of self-deployable structures for space applications, describing a lightweight technology that enables quick deployment and compact storage while preserving stability in a space environment [20]. Similar to this, Furuya presented an idea that makes use of tensegrity structures to maximize spatial effectiveness and speed the conversion into large-scale designs [21].
The main challenge in the design of these systems is balancing stiffness and flexibility. The system needs to be sufficiently stiff to guarantee structural stability after deployment, but it also needs to be flexible enough to facilitate deployment. Chen gave a case study in which a technique for achieving this balance was created and assessed using Shape Memory Composites (SMC) [22]. The study demonstrated the use of strut-cable systems, which exhibit remarkable recovery accuracy and stiffness, in structures like antenna reflectors.
To enhance the understanding of materials used in deployable structures, it is crucial to recognize the significant progress made in materials science that has impacted this field. Notable instances include Shape Memory Polymers (SMP) and their composites, which are commonly utilized in self-deployable structures for aerospace purposes [20,22]. Glass transition temperatures (Tg) for SMP, which are mostly thermoplastic polymers based on polyurethane, vary from −75 to +100°C. Notably, M-18G foam (Tg = 4°C) has been specially designed for Martian temperatures, whereas MF5520 foam (Tg = 63°C) has been created as a reference material. These materials are frequently integrated into Cold Hibernated Elastic Memory (CHEM) structures, which provide benefits such as self-deployment capabilities, lightweight design, and impact absorption. Recent innovations have led to the creation of SMC for strut-cable systems, which demonstrate remarkable shape recovery rates exceeding 99.994%, facilitating lightweight designs. Although these materials offer excellent performance, they do have some drawbacks, such as the need for thermal energy during use and possible manufacturing flaws. However, strut-cable systems that incorporate these materials provide a well-rounded approach for compact storage, effective deployment, and structural integrity in space environments. Ongoing research and advancements in materials science continue to expand the potential uses of deployable structures in outer space.

2.2.2 Tensioned Membranes

Tensioned membranes are mostly used in space applications where large deployable surfaces are required [2729]. Continuous or pneumatically pressured membranes are used in this design to maintain the correct form and guarantee structural integrity. Space exploration relies heavily on tensioned membranes since they are lightweight and offer a wide covering area [4951].
Wang presented a tensioned membrane system with programmable origami-based curved shapes that is both resilient and very efficient [23]. This system exhibits remarkable operating efficiency in space, allowing for quick setup and small storage. Xi looked at deployable structures suitable for a range of space settings and presented several design approaches, such as tensioned membranes emphasizing lightweight and flexible structures [24]. Fig. 3(A) shows its mechanism.
Additionally, McPherson examined potential dynamic impacts during deployment, evaluating the efficiency and processes related to tensioned membranes [25]. The investigation focused on assessing the structure’s operational efficacy in the space environment.
Liu (Fig. 4) outlined the parabolic membrane antenna deployment methods, which she divided into four categories [42]: inflation, inflation-rigidization, elastic ribs (Fig. 4(A)), and the SMP-inflatable (Fig. 4(B)).
In order to create a parabolic configuration, the antenna is inflated with gas after being deployed from storage using springs. Gas injection is not necessary during the inflation phase thanks to the inflation-rigidization technology. Using a central hub, elastic ribs are deployed to form a parabolic membrane reflector in the elastic ribs-driven approach. SMP-inflatable antennas take use of the characteristics of SMP materials as they inflate; in this instance, the membrane is heated to promote inflating and cools to return to its parabolic shape.
Planar membrane antenna frames are now designed with a rectangular shape (Fig. 4(D)) instead of their original circular one (Fig. 4(C)). The rectangular frame is a more portable option because it doesn’t require tripods.
However, maintaining structural integrity both during and after deployment is a major difficulty related to tensioned membranes. The membrane needs to be stable in operating circumstances and able to withstand the pressures caused by deployment. The design should balance membrane stability and lightweight qualities in systems with pneumatically pressured membranes [26]. Ensuring appropriate stiffness post-deployment and accommodating compact packaging are critical design requirements.
Tensioned membrane structures mainly use polyester films (PET, Mylar) and polyimide films (PI, Kapton, UPilex) due to their lightweight nature (with a density between 1.38 and 1.47 g/cm3) and flexibility [30]. Composite materials, including aluminum-mylar laminates (which consist of layers of Al/Mylar/Al, each 14 μm thick), offer both lightness and rigidity after being deployed [28]. Carbon fiber (CF) and Glass Fiber Plain Weave (GFPW) composites provide high stiffness and strength, but they come with higher manufacturing costs [27]. Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) allow for shape changes based on temperature, although their effective temperature range is limited [25]. Each material presents unique advantages and drawbacks, necessitating careful selection based on specific application criteria, including durability in extraterrestrial environments, efficiency of deployment, and structural integrity. A thorough comprehension and prudent application of these varied material properties are critical for enhancing performance and efficiency in space deployable structures.

2.3 Rigid Links

In order to enable complex mechanical movements, non-deformable parts are joined in a variety of ways to form rigid link structures. These structures are mostly used as deployable systems in the aerospace and aviation industries. Based on their features, they may be divided into four different subtypes: pantographic (scissors), bars, folded plates, and curved surfaces (Table 2).

2.3.1 Pantographic (Scissors)

The main characteristic of pantographic structures is the scissor-like connecting parts [33,35,37]. These structures are very useful for space applications where space efficiency and compactness are essential. The capacity of pantomime structures to change from a two-dimensional flat to a three-dimensional arrangement is one of its distinguishing characteristics. Large deployable devices, like space antennae, which need to deploy smoothly while maintaining high accuracy and structural integrity, commonly use them.
A pantographic system capable of producing curved profiles that need highly accurate has been studied [12]. This mechanism (Fig. 3(B)) maintains structural stability after deployment and makes it easier to go seamlessly from the original configuration to the final shape.
Additionally, a scissor-like deployment mechanism has been proposed for compactly designed structures [31]. This mechanism maximizes space in both storage and transportation, and when the structure is deployed, it becomes a three-dimensional structure, guaranteeing stable performance in extraterrestrial environments.
To ensure dependability under a variety of situations, pantographic structural design and modeling require a high degree of accuracy. Datashvili has demonstrated how crucial these modeling and design procedures are to maintaining stability in space settings [32].
Pantographic structures offer considerable benefits for space applications where maximizing space and compactness is crucial. Their ability to shift from two-dimensional to three-dimensional forms makes them ideal for large deployable devices like space antennas. Lightweight and strong materials, such as CFRP, are commonly used in these structures [31]. They are particularly effective in supporting curved antenna designs and achieving excellent longitudinal packaging efficiency. Additionally, advanced designs like Variable Length Diagonal (VLD) and Sliding Hinge Double Foldable (SHDF) trusses improve packaging efficiency even further [38]. Rod systems equipped with hinges offer design flexibility for a variety of structural forms. However, these structures encounter challenges, including complex deployment mechanisms, installation difficulties associated with curved geometries, and occasionally diminished design flexibility compared to traditional structures. A thorough understanding of these material and structural characteristics is crucial for the effective design of deployable structures intended for space environments.

2.3.2 Bars

Bar structures are designed to improve dynamic performance in space-deployable systems. They are made up of stiff, rod-like connections that are usually coupled by permanent or flexible joints. These structures, which include intricate processes intended to control dynamic behavior during the deployment phase, are frequently used in large deployable frameworks [45,46].
The impact of semi-rigid joints on the dynamic stability of massive space truss constructions has been included in the Yao’s research [42]. The flexibility of joints throughout the deployment process and its effects on the system’s overall performance were the main topics of this inquiry. Fig. 3(C) shows its mechanism.
Furthermore, a thorough analysis of different joint configurations and their impacts on deployment dynamics has been conducted, shedding light on how joint flexibility affects the dynamic response of structures during deployment and offering strategies to guarantee dynamic stability [43].
When it comes to massive deployable systems like space trusses or satellite arrangements, bar structures are very important. They are made to control unusual motions that could occur during deployment and to uphold dynamic stability by use of finely crafted joint systems. In addition, strategies for efficiently managing intricate mechanical motions during deployment have been put forth, utilizing flexible components such tape flexures that play a crucial role in augmenting the stability of deployable structures [44].
Understanding the materials and their properties used in deployable space structures, especially those with bar configurations, is crucial for advancing this field. The main materials employed include aluminum alloys, stainless steel, CFRP, glass fiber epoxy composites, and specialized alloys like beryllium-copper (Be-Cu) and nickel-chromium-titanium-aluminum (Ni36CrTiAl) [39,40,42,4446]. These materials are known for being lightweight, having high stiffness and strength, and offering thermal stability, which supports compact folding and self-deployment mechanisms. CFRP and Radio Frequency (RF) reflective meshes made from either metal or synthetic fibers improve reliability by providing high packaging efficiency and designs that do away with mechanical joints. However, these materials also pose challenges, including the necessity for intricate thermo-structural analyses, issues related to stress concentration in folded configurations, complexities in analyzing nonlinear behavior, and constraints in ground testing. A thorough understanding and appropriate application of these material characteristics are imperative for optimizing the performance and efficiency of deployable space structures.

2.3.3 Folded Plates

Folded plates are systems that form deployable structures using foldable plates. These structures may convert complex geometries into simpler configurations for effective storage, which is especially useful in situations when linear deployment is required. Folded plates, which possess exceptional stability, are widely utilized in various applications, including enclosures for spaces. When not in use, they may be easily folded up and kept in a small, compact form, then stretched back into their original forms.
The integrity of folded plates depends on the efficient control of any stresses that may develop during the deployment process. In order to guarantee that the constructions attain the proper shape while maintaining their structural integrity, this management is essential. Yang has shown how honeycomb structures may be used in space deployment systems, emphasizing how their strength-to-weight ratio and lightweight nature make them ideal for incorporation into folded plate structures [47].

2.3.4 Curved Surface

Deployable systems utilizing curved geometries often incorporate curved-surface structures [48]. These structures need to be able to deploy precisely, with a focus on preserving the surface’s curvature after deployment. They are mainly employed in applications like curved antennas and large-scale curved structures, where careful design is necessary to guarantee surface curvature retention after deployment.

3 Applications of Deployable Structures in Space Industry

Deployable structures in the space industry are broadly categorized into two types: deformable structures and rigid links. Deformable structures are designed to allow the structure to change shape or form a new configuration in space, enabling it to perform specific functions [5458]. These structures are compactly folded during launch and then deployed in space as needed, expanding to cover a large area or perform a specific mission. On the other hand, rigid links are sturdy structures that maintain structural strength and stability while saving space during launch. They are primarily used to connect and support large components of modules [5961]. This paper investigates how these two types of deployable structures are utilized in space industry applications, such as International Space Station modules, satellite antennas, and solar panels [6265].

3.1 International Space Station Module

The ISS module is a critical component providing sustainable infrastructure in space [6669], where Deformable Structures and Rigid Links play important roles. These structures are compactly stowed during launch and then deployed in space to maximize the functionality of the module.
Fig. 5 shows NASA’s iROSA. It was delivered in a compact cylindrical rolled-up form and then expanded by rolling out (Fig. 6).
Fig. 7 depicts the China Space Station, demonstrating an ISS module utilizing a deformable mechanism [70]. The Mengtian lab module was launched in a compact form and expanded after docking with the China Space Station.

3.1.1 Deformable Structures

Deformable structures enable the module to adjust to varying space conditions. To carry out their intended duties, they change their form or reconfigure in certain situations. The deformable structures that are used in the ISS modules stand out for being very stable and easily deployed. Kwan put out the idea of quickly deploying modular parts to ensure stability and structural integrity [39]. The benefits of self-deploying structures, which provide efficiency and dependability without requiring intricate mechanical systems, were highlighted by Sokolowski [20]. These structures ensure the steady and efficient operation of ISS modules in orbit.

3.1.2 Rigid Links

Rigid links, as robust structures, are primarily used to connect and support large components of the module. These structures are launched in a compact form and expand to function in space. Meguro suggested various methods related to the deployment of rigid links, emphasizing the importance of maintaining high strength and stability [40]. Furuya highlighted that deployable tensegrity structures offer high strength and efficient space utilization, making them suitable for space modules [21]. Additionally, Petroski mentioned that deployable truss structures demonstrate lightweight and high reliability, simplifying the deployment and installation of space modules [24].

3.2 Satellite Antenna

In the field of space communications and observational technologies, where lightweight designs and efficient deployment procedures are crucial, satellite antennas play a crucial role [7580]. The main components of these antennas are Deformable Structures and Rigid Links, each of which is painstakingly designed to achieve certain mission goals.
The SWOT satellite (Fig. 8) was folded and deployed in four days (Fig. 9(A)). An Oxford Space System with a deployed offset antenna reflector using rigid links is shown in Fig. 10 [81]. The folded radar antenna reflector was launched, and it was later installed in space.

3.2.1 Deformable Structures

Deformable structures form a lightweight and high-strength structure suitable for space communications and observations, particularly for satellite antennas with large apertures. These structures are designed to extend in space to carry out their operational functions after being compactly folded during the launch phase. Santiago-Prowald carried out a study that clarified the use of deformable structures in space for communication and observational purposes, emphasizing their advantages for large apertures [82]. In addition, Miura suggested a range of deformable structures that would ensure operation after deployment in space by packing efficiently before launch [41].
You specifically created a deployable structure with a curved shape specifically designed for space antennas, incorporating techniques that guarantee great strength and a wide deployment range [12]. These deformable structures are essential to satellite antenna deployment systems because they enable reliable functioning in the harsh environment of space.

3.2.2 Rigid Links

For satellite antennas, rigid links are strong structural parts that are mainly responsible for securely joining and supporting heavy components. Choi investigated techniques that offer improved stability and dependability while designing and evaluating a passive deployment mechanism for space telescopes [83]. Additionally, Pagani assessed the ultrathin composite shell structures’ dynamic properties and suggested methods to enhance their performance for space applications [28].
In order to obtain flexibility and a lightweight design appropriate for space applications, Wang looked at the optimal design of structures inspired by origami and analyzed how they may be integrated with cylindrical surfaces [84]. These rigid links provide a large amount of geometric stability, which guarantees consistent performance even after deployment, making them suitable for extended usage in space conditions.

3.3 Solar Panels

Solar panels are vital components in the power supply for satellite systems and space exploration [8587]. These panels are folded up into a small, compact shape for launch and then released in orbit to provide an increased surface area when needed. There are two primary types of solar panel designs: Rigid Links and Deformable Structures.
The main power source of the SWOT spacecraft (Fig. 8) was solar power. To enhance their surface area, these panels were first folded and subsequently unfolded (Fig. 9(B)).
A SpaceX Starlink satellite is also shown in Fig. 11, which uses a deformable mechanism for its solar panels [88]. These solar panels are tiny when launched, but they enlarge while in orbit.

3.3.1 Deformable Structures

Deformable structures provide flexibility for solar panels, allowing them to be compactly folded during launch and to maximize energy collection once deployed in space. Chen proposed a space deployment mechanism utilizing thermally sensitive SMC to achieve high stiffness and efficient shape recovery [22]. This design makes it easier for solar panels to operate steadily across a range of temperatures.
Schenk discussed deployable space structures using inflatable cylinders, explaining how self-rigidizing and lightweight characteristics play a critical role in maintaining the performance of solar panels after deployment [27]. These structures not only save space during launch but also ensure stable deployment in space.
Additionally, He suggested a structure made of SMP that could change shape in response to temperature changes [89]. This characteristic makes it possible for solar panels to adapt to temperature changes that occur in space.

3.3.2 Rigid Links

Rigid links improve stability and reduce deformation during the launch and deployment stages, contributing to the structural integrity of solar panels. Yang examined the essential elements of solar panels with honeycomb structures, examining the benefits of reduced weight, heightened strength, and cost effectiveness in launch operations [47]. These configurations maximize the solar panels’ total performance.
Zhang provided a multi-objective optimization methodology to optimize geometric parameters, hence increasing stability and efficiency, and offered strategies to improve the structural stability of solar panels by using composite materials [90]. After solar panels are installed, these Rigid Links are essential to maintaining reliable performance.

3.4 Others

3.4.1 Ultra-lightweight and Smart Structures

Low-density materials are used to build ultra-lightweight structures [91], and these materials are compactly stored before launch and then distributed in the space environment. Applications such as solar energy harvesting, wireless communication, and space exploration depend on these structures [92,93].
Inflatable booms are stored in small volumes and can expand to a large size in space [29]. Their lightweight design and great packing efficiency make them ideal for use in antenna systems and solar panels.
The form of the SMP composites can change in response to temperature changes [94]. These materials are utilized effectively for use in solar panels and space exploration equipment because they provide significant stiffness without sacrificing weight.
Tape springs are thin, flexible metallic or composite materials that may be extended into greater shapes after being folded into compact volumes [95]. They are frequently used in solar panel arrangements and antenna booms.

3.4.2 Smart Driving Mechanisms

Smart driving mechanisms are systems designed to automatically deploy structures into their final configuration [96]. These systems enable dependable operation in interplanetary settings and effective use of available space. Many sophisticated driving mechanisms are used in the space industry for a wide range of applications.
Self-deployable geometries are structures that can automatically deploy without complex mechanical mechanisms [34], improving efficiency and reliability. These are used in space probe antennas and solar panels.
Tape flexures are components that may be deployed by using flexible tape materials [44]. Their lightweight nature and inherent flexibility make them useful for deployment systems in space exploration equipment.
Origami-inspired structures maximize flexibility and lightweight properties by using curved surfaces, which are inspired by the techniques of origami craft [23]. These structures, which can change into several different forms, are used in space probe antennae and structures.

4 Conclusion

4.1 Overview

This paper investigated the classification, characteristics, and applications of deployable structures in the space industry. Two major types of deployable structures, deformable structures and rigid links, were explored, emphasizing their distinct mechanical features and potential for space exploration. These structures offer significant advantages for modern engineering applications due to their efficiency, lightweight design, and great strength.
The space industry has enormous potential for deployable structures. Their adaptability to various conditions, combined with efficiency, lightweight design, and durability makes them suitable for both compact setups and large-scale, complex projects.
However, difficulties persist in the deployment and control of these structures. The intricacy of the deployment processes, the necessity for precise control, and guaranteeing structural integrity before and after deployment are all continuing challenges. These difficulties emphasize the necessity for more study to maximize the performance and dependability of deployable structures in orbit.
Alongside structural considerations, the materials used have an impact on deployable structures’ performance. In the past, metals like aluminum alloys and stainless steel were mostly utilized for missions in space [9799], despite their weight limitations. Recently, there has been an increase in the usage of composite materials, including CFRP, GFRP, and SMC. These materials are lightweight, high stiffness, and have some self-deployment characteristics. Additionally, thin-film materials such as aluminum-mylar laminates, polyester films, and polyimide films (PI) are being used.
Each material has its own set of advantages and limitations. Although composite materials are lightweight and durable, their production may be more expensive. SMC can alter their shape in response to temperature changes while having a narrow operating temperature range. Despite their flexibility and lightweight nature, thin films are improbable to possess the strength of metals. Achieving a balance between lightweight features and high stiffness, fatigue resistance during repeated folding and unfolding, durability in harsh space environments, and the requirement for complicated shape control and thermo-structural analysis are the primary challenges with these materials.
Future developments are anticipated to concentrate on nanomaterials and advanced smart materials. Higher-performance SMC, self-healing composites, and ultra-lightweight, high-strength nanocomposites that are better suited to space settings are currently being researched. Additionally, it is becoming simpler to include 3D printing technology for the creation of customized structures. The efficacy and durability of deployable structures for space applications are expected to be greatly enhanced by these developments in materials science.

4.2 Future Prospects

Deployable structures have a potential future. Technological developments in the field of materials science, smart technologies, and design have enhanced the performance and reliability of deployable structures. Even in hostile environments like space, these innovations ensure structural stability and performance while enabling rapid deployment.
The integration of smart materials and advancements in artificial intelligence-based control systems are expected to enhance the efficiency and precision of deployment operations. Furthermore, the potential for deployable structures to spread into other industries, such as disaster relief, architecture, and military applications, creates new opportunities for their development and use.
In conclusion, deployable structures are beneficial for space exploration, providing a diverse and sustainable method for building large-scale, lightweight structures in harsh environments. As demand rises in the space industry and beyond, ongoing innovation in materials and control systems will be useful in unlocking the full potential of deployable structures, establishing them as a cornerstone of future engineering solutions.

Acknowledgement(s)

This work is supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grants funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (Nos. 2018R1A5A7023490, 2019R1F1A1063621, and NRF-2021R1F1A1063485) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE) and the Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) through the International Cooperative R&D program (No. P0016173).

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this work.

Fig. 1
Overview of the deployable structures
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Fig. 2
Classification of the deployable structures
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Fig. 3
Mechanisms of the deployable structures; (A) tensioned membranes, (B) pantographic, and (C) bars
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Fig. 4
Tensioned membranes [42] (Adapted from Ref. 42 on the basis of OA); (A) elastic ribs-driven membrane antenna, (B) SMP-inflatable membrane antenna, (C) structural configuration of planar membrane antenna, and (D) the membrane Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) antenna
ijpem-st-2024-00199f4.jpg
Fig. 5
ISS Roll Out Solar Arrays (iROSA); (A) illustration, (B) picture on space [52], and (C) picture in laboratory [53] (Adapted from Refs. 52, 53 on the basis of OA)
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Fig. 6
Mechanism of the iROSA [52] (Adapted from Ref. 52 on the basis of OA)
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Fig. 7
(A) China space station and (B) Mechanism of the mengtian lab module
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Fig. 8
The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite; (A) illustration [71], (B) picture on space [72], and (C) picture in laboratory [73] (Adapted from Refs. 7173 on the basis of OA)
ijpem-st-2024-00199f8.jpg
Fig. 9
Mechanism of SWOT satellite; (A) the antenna and (B) the solar panels [74] (Adapted from Res. 74 on the basis of OA)
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Fig. 10
(A) Oxford space systems and (B) Deployable offset reflector Antenna
ijpem-st-2024-00199f10.jpg
Fig. 11
(A) A SpaceX starlink satellite and (B) mechanism of the solar panels
ijpem-st-2024-00199f11.jpg
Table 1
A summary of deformable structures; mechanisms, advantages and limitations
Deformable Structures Mechanisms Advantages Limitations Ref.
Strut-cable Systems Combines tensegrity with strut-cable system for automatic expansion and contraction. - High flexibility.
- Lightweight.
- Suitable for various space environments.
- Requires precise control for stability.
- Risk of unstable deployment.
[20]
Tension and compression distributed through cables and struts for expansion/ contraction. - Lightweight.
- High strength-to-weight ratio.
- Geometric efficiency.
- Minimal material usage.
- Complex control mechanism needed.
- Sensitive to load imbalances.
[21]
Articulated joints and sliding elements used to deploy large panels. - High structural strength.
- Efficient packaging for launch.
- Reliable mechanical performance in space.
- Mechanically complex.
- Requires precise calibration and maintenance to avoid deployment failure.
[22]
Tensioned Membranes Curved panels connected by hinges, folded/unfolded using origami techniques. - Efficient folding/unfolding of complex curved structure.
- Lightweight, high-strength structure.
- Complex deployment mechanism due to curved structure. [23]
Structure deployed and retracted using tension and fixed panels. - Wide range of applications.
- Stable rigidity after deployment.
- Installation complexity varies with different structures. [24]
Geometric deployment mechanism inspired by origami, forming complex curves. - Flexible design.
- High strength-to-weight ratio.
- Compact storage.
- Complex deployment process and difficult control. [25]
Compact storage and deployment using tension and fixed panels. - Structural strength, lightweight, and stable in space environments. - Complex mechanisms needed for airtightness and deployment. [26]
Inflatable cylinders expand and secure structure with pressure. - Lightweight.
- Efficient space usage.
- Easy installation.
- Susceptible to inflation/solidification failure.
- Sensitive to impacts.
[27]
Ultra-thin composite shells compactly folded, deployed to form curved surfaces. - Lightweight.
- High-strength structure.
- Maintains curved shapes after deployment.
- Complex deployment mechanism and design process. [28]
Inflatable booms expand with pressure and solidify for structural stability. - Lightweight.
- Compact storage.
- Stable rigidity after deployment.
- Complex inflation/solidification mechanism.
- Sensitive to impacts.
[29]
Membrane antenna folded and deployed in space using tension and fixed frame. - Lightweight.
- Reliable communication in space.
- Complex installation and requires precise control. [30]

(Adapted from Refs. 2730 on the basis of OA)

Table 2
A summary of rigid links; mechanisms, advantages and limitations
Rigid Links Mechanisms Advantages Limitations Ref.
Pantographic (scissors) Pantograph mechanism to deploy a curved antenna structure. - Efficient complex curves.
- Excellent antenna performance.
- Complex deployment due to curved structure. [12]
Truss structure expanding flat using scissor-like elements. - Efficient flat storage.
- Simple deployment mechanism.
- Limited mobility when flat.
- Reduced stability under heavy loads.
[31]
Hinged rod system for folding and unfolding. - Extremely compact storage.
- Various deployable forms.
- Complex hinge system.
- Fatigue with repeated use.
[32]
Expansion and contraction via a 'click' mechanism. - Easy deployment and retraction.
- Maintains stability.
- Limited scalability.
- Complex design.
[33]
Self-deployable structure that expands automatically. - Automatically deploys.
- Lightweight and multifunctional.
- Complex automatic system.
- Requires precise control.
[34]
Sliding joints used to expand or retract panels. - High structural strength and stability. - Limited mobility.
- Complex installation process.
[35]
Large antenna deployed using an H-shaped mechanism. - Easy large structure deployment.
- Stable and strong.
- Mechanically complex.
- Challenging installation and maintenance.
[36]
Structure deployed by sliding scissor-like elements. - Simple deployment mechanism.
- Maintains strength.
- Limited mobility.
- Complex installation.
[37]
2D truss structure expanded using sliding hinges. - Lightweight.
- Easy planar deployment
- Structural complexity requires precision during installation. [38]
Bars Fixed frames and sliding elements used to expand large space frames. - Lightweight.
- Structural strength.
- Scalable.
- Complex installation.
- Requires precise control during deployment.
[39]
Structure expands via sliding mechanism and fixed panels. - Structural stability.
- Reliable through testing.
- Complex deployment due to multiple components.
- Limited mobility.
[40]
Expands and contracts through fixed panels and sliding frames. - Versatile design.
- Structural strength.
- Requires complex design and precise control. [41]
Semi-rigid joint used to expand and contract truss structure. - Stable large structure deployment.
- Lightweight.
- Complex joint design.
- Precise deployment required.
[42]
Sliding and hinge mechanisms control dynamic properties of the structure. - Improved strength.
- Dynamic stability.
- Complex joint design.
- Maintenance may be required.
[43]
Sliding mechanism with tape flexures for expansion. - Lightweight.
- Maintains rigidity post-deployment.
- Requires precision during installation and deployment.
- Risk of deployment failure.
[44]
Large structure expanded using a sliding frame. - Lightweight.
- Scalable.
- Provides stability.
- Limited mobility.
- Complex deployment mechanism.
[45]
Composite boom with slotted hinges deployed via sliding mechanism. - Suitable for thermal environments.
- Maintains rigidity.
- Design complexity due to thermal changes.
- Precise control required during deployment.
[46]
Folded plates Honeycomb structure moves and expands through a sliding frame. - Excellent strength-to-weight ratio.
- Provides stable support.
- Limited mobility.
- Complex installation and deployment mechanism.
[47]
Curved surfaces Lamina panels arranged in a diamond shape and bonded with adhesive to form a geodesic dome. - Strong dome with lightweight structure.
- Maximizes strength with minimal materials.
- Complex assembly process.
- Waterproofing required at adhesive joints.
[48]

(Adapted from Refs. 47, 48 on the basis of OA)

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Biography

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Suyeon Seo received a B.S. degree in Mechanical, Robotics and Energy Engineering from Dongguk University in 2023. She is currently a M.S. student in Mechanical Engineering at Dongguk University. Her current interests include 3D printing, design for manufacturing, smart materials, biomedical instrumentation, bio-inspired robots.

Biography

ijpem-st-2024-00199i2.jpg
Min-Woo Han is an Associate Professor at Department of Mechanical, Robotics and Energy Engineering, Dongguk University. His research interests include 3D/4D printing, polymer processing, smart/composite materials, soft actuators and sensors for robotic applications.
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